A Healthier Pet Trade Could Prevent a Looming American Amphibian Apocalypse

North America's unmatched salamander bounty remains deeply threatened by a fungus that swept Europe and could cross the seas through the global pet trade

Sep 20, 2022

Watch my Columbia Climate School Sustain What webcasts here.

A little missive on appreciating the value of one of the lowliest vertebrates around - salamanders - and working to cut odds that America's astounding salamander bounty isn't ravaged by a deadly skin-eating fungus that has already spread from Asia to Europe and could arrive here soon via the global pet trade.

NEWS UPDATE 9/21/22 - In case you wonder why amphibians matter, a newly published study has found a relationship between the catastrophic loss of Central American frogs to the Bd fungus to a temporary rise in malaria rates as the pathogen reached Costa Rica and Panama. More below.

You may have noticed that the spotted salamander in these images has very dusty feet and flanks. The dust came from our gravel road in rural Downeast Maine, where we encountered tis resplendent member of the burrowing mole salamander family while walking our dogs early Sunday morning - happily just before a couple of cars turned in from the main drag.

Roads are a tough barrier for salamanders (and lots more wildlife) because of cars; dirt roads are worse for salamanders because these amphibians have to keep their skin moist to stay healthy.

I carefully picked this one up and carried it into the marshy meadow on the wetter side of the road, depositing it in grass beneath a willow tree. (I'd call it him or her but salamander sex is tough to determine outside breeding season.)

Hurrah for me, but this was a very minor rescue on a planet where amphibians face monumental challenges.

This chance encounter, along with another my wife had with a different salamander species earlier in the month, got me revisiting urgent questions I explored a few years ago around a vastly greater threat than roadkill. And the situation remains dire.

Thank you for reading Sustain What. This post is public so feel free to share it.

A fearsome globe-trotting fungus

On my New York Times blog Dot Earth, from 2014 through 2016, I wrote a string of posts about efforts to understand and defeat a fungus that destroys salamander skin and has devastated many European salamander populations in the past decade, evidently carried there in the pet trade from its original environs in Asia.

Without swift action, this fungal scourge of salamanders, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, or Bsal for short, could be carried across the sea to either coast and strike North America, devastating dozens of species known to be vulnerable through lab tests. (Happily, the disease doesn't appear to kill the spotted salamander. The diminutive eastern red-backed salamander my wife saw, from a family of salamander species that have no lungs and respire through the skin, does appear deeply vulnerable.)

Physical signs of Bsal infection: a) A naturally infected fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) found during a Bsal outbreak in Belgium showing several ulcers (white arrows) and excessive skin shedding; b) extensive ulceration (white arrows) on the belly of an infected fire salamander; c) skin section through an ulcer shows fungal colonies inside cells; d) further magnification of infected skin cells. Image from Pascale van Rooij et al., 2015, via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY 4.0).

The global amphibian and reptile trade has already disrupted ecosystems worldwide, with American bullfrogs driving out local frogs in France, Burmese pythons famously vacuuming up Florida's native wildlife and the devastating chytridiomycosis fungal disease, caused by the globe-hopping fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a k a Bd, wiping out a host of tropical frog species.

I'm still haunted by the last call of "Toughie," the last known Rabbs' fringe-limbed tree frog, who died at the Atlanta Botanical Garden in 2016. His wild kin were among a host of Central American species wiped out by chytridiomycosis - which has affected more than 700 amphibian species worldwide.

But at least frogs, like birds, get our attention. Salamanders, silent and underfoot, are nonetheless a keystone presence in a host of forest ecosystems.

"If Bsal gets here, it could be one of the greatest global catastrophes we have with respect to pathogen invasions," Matt Gray, a wetlands and disease ecologist at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, told me yesterday.

With his wife, University of Tennessee Professor Deb Miller, Gray is helping lead a global effort to prevent, or at least forestall and limit, such an invasion. Gray said testing and models have shown that more than 60 American salamander species face an existential threat if the fungus spreads here, and the pet trade is the core conduit - and place to seek solutions.

I asked Gray what has happened since my last Bsal post in 2016, when the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service barred the importation of 201 salamander species as an interim measure in the face of pressure from conservation biologists and environmental groups.

USFWS

"Not a whole lot has been done since 2016,” Gray said, although the good news is that widespread testing of salamanders around North America has not revealed any Bsal infections so far.

"One thing frustrating to me is that the highest likelihood of Bsal getting here is through trade," he said, but there's still no disease surveillance of that flow. He said 5 million amphibians are still imported each year, with half of that trade through the pet industry (the other half is mostly food, like frog legs, that doesn't pose a threat).

Please share this post with friends. It's time to expand our community.

Update 9/21 - In case you wonder whether all of this matters much, newly published research has found a link between the wave of Bd frog die-offs in Central America and an eight-year surge in the rate of human malaria infections after frogs were wiped out in Costa Rica and Panama. (The link may be that tadpoles eat, and compete with, mosquito larvae.) Here's the study: "Amphibian collapses increased malaria incidence in Central America." The great health journalist Maryn McKenna (@marynmck) has an excellent story on that work in Wired, noting how a salamander die-off here could affect human welfare and health. There's more in a thorough report in Science Alert by Carly Cassella (@carlycassella), who widens the lens this way:

"Since the global pandemic began in 2020, the world has become ever more aware that the health of our species is closely intertwined with other animals. Today, the conversation is mostly focused on birds and mammals, with amphibians rarely considered – but that may be a dangerous oversight. A newly published study on frogs and malaria illustrates how intimately human health may be impacted by these lovable – if somewhat slimy – creatures." [End insert]

Why this matters - the U.S. as global salamander haven

I'd often encountered salamanders growing up in Rhode Island and then living for more than three decades in the Hudson River Valley, where the eastern newt, particularly the wonderful red eft life stage, captivated me winter and summer (see videos below).

An eastern newt in the Hudson Valley (A. Revkin)

What I didn't know until diving into this story line is that the eastern United States, particularly the Appalachians, holds the richest diversity of salamander species on the planet. (Read more about both newts and that diversity hot spot in Rachel Fritts's contribution to a neat running Mongabay series on salamanders.)

Biodiversitymapping.org

That's why it's critical to hold the line on Bsal.

This is a non-human pandemic and the same rules apply as those countries are trying (inadequately from many indications) to apply to COVID-19 and whatever comes next as more novel diseases emerge from disturbed ecosystems.

Prevention is essential. By the time biologists start seeing this fungus in American ecosystems, it'll be too late.

A ban or a cleaner pet trade?

Old conservation tools, like the Endangered Species Act, fail to get ahead of such threats because they only kick in when a species is already ailing.

Legislation that would bar imports has faltered year after year, most recently when provisions on wildlife trade in the House America Competes Act were stripped before the bipartisan CHIPS and Science Act of 2022 emerged and was signed into law by President Joe Biden.

Some passionate lobbies within and outside the exotic-pets community have fought such restrictions.

But a couple of legislative efforts are under way, according to Stephanie Kurose, a senior endangered species policy specialist at the Center for Biological Diversity. She pointed to provisions in the bipartisan Preventing Future Pandemics Act, introduced in the Senate last year by Senators John Cornyn (R-TX) and Cory Booker (D-NJ).* The bill, also introduced in the House, Kurose said, "would ban the import, export, and sale of live wildlife, and would shut down live wildlife markets in the U.S. and provide capacity to shut down markets internationally as well."

Bans like this have a tendency to falter when it comes to wildlife trade, as demonstrated by the sad plight of Mexico's vaquita porpoise - imperiled by illegal Asian trade in an endangered fish that shares its habitat.

So some biologists like Matt Gray are pursuing a parallel path.

In our interview, Gray said an increasing number of businesses, groups and individuals in the amphibian pet trade are interested in moving to a certification model - where specimens can be certified as disease free.

An initial survey done with partners including the Pet Advocacy Network, a trade group seeking a balance between regulation and voluntary action, found substantial willingness among suppliers, sellers and customers to pay more for amphibians that are tested for Bsal and other diseases and marketed as safe.

"Pet owners buying amphibians are often very conservation oriented and want to do the best thing and have healthy animals," Gray told me.

His university, located in Knoxville, near the heart of that salamander diversity hot spot, has become a key node in a global network focused on Bsal and other diseases imperiling amphibians. In August the university hosted 250 scientists from 25 countries for the first Global Amphibian and Reptile Disease Conference.

Earlier this year, the North American Bsal Task Force of experts, working with some representatives from the pet industry, released a strategic plan to prevent and control invasions by the lethal disease. The first recommendation was to "Prevent invasion of Bsal into North America by encouraging stakeholders to work toward a clean trade program for amphibians that certifies individuals in trade are free of Bsal infection."

Matt Gray's team at the University of Tennessee wildlife health lab just received a five-year, $2.75 million federal grant to identify strategies that will minimize the risk of amphibian pathogens spreading from captive pet populations to wild populations and threatening amphibian biodiversity.

I'll be keeping track of the results.

I reached out to the Pet Advocacy Network and one of the biggest amphibian pet companies, Josh's Frogs, for input.

Here's input from Zach Brinks, the vice president of operations at Josh's Frogs, which only deals in disease-tested, captive-bred animals:

At Josh's Frogs, we think that a safe, sustainable trade is the only way for the exotic pet industry to grow. In today's modern world of glass and concrete, exotic pets (in our case, primarily amphibians) are one of the few ways to routinely interact with and experience nature. It's our belief that the act of keeping animals in captivity should have a net benefit - not only should there not be a negative impact on wild populations, but there should actually be a benefit. That's why we work with different researchers and conservationists around the world to protect the species we offer to the public. That viewpoint is what has spurred us to work with the University of Tennessee, Michigan State University, University of Washington, as well as others in the pet industry to help establish what a responsible amphibian trade, free to operate without fear of spreading infectious diseases, and ensuring pets and wild animals alike are protected and can thrive.

Here's a tour of the Michigan company's home base by Brinks.

Here's input from Joshua Jones, Pet Advocacy Network’s director for government affairs:

As part the Pet Advocacy Network’s commitment to responsible environmental stewardship, we are working to mitigate the threat to both captive and wild domestic salamander populations posed by certain pathogens such as Bsal. We are participating on the North American Bsal Task Force, joining government officials, NGOs, academia and the pet trade to investigate the threat and develop solutions. Our pilot program in partnership with the University of Tennessee Knoxville tested microbe levels present in breeding and handling facilities and our participation in the expanded study will help us determine the steps that can be taken to reduce the spread of harmful pathogens and potentially support a ‘clean trade’ future on specific pathogens.

What's your take on a ban?

Do look down!

We're surrounded by everyday wonders, as I explored in my post on the pileated woodpecker - the splendid but abundant cousin of the vanished ivory-billed woodpecker.

I would have missed the beautiful spotted salamander we encountered on Sunday because I was looking toward the horizon, watching for birds and marveling at cloud formations. My wife, Lisa, a seasoned naturalist, was more alert and called out, "Salamander!"

One moral of the story: do look down and around wherever you are. There's likely something spectacular nearby.

And share what you see.

If you spot a salamander or other amphibian or reptile, see if your state does what Maine does with its Maine Amphibian & Reptile Atlas Project (MARAP) and submit the sighting.

That's the first thing I did.

Maine's atlas integrates sightings from iNaturalist as well. My sighting is not on the map yet, but the one my wife, Lisa Mechaley, posted on September 9 using iNaturalist (an eastern red-backed salamander) is already up.

Reading and viewing

Professors Matt Gray and Deb Miller of the University of Tennessee's amphibian disease lab co-wrote an explanatory piece for The Conversation in 2020 that's well worth reading, and they also were the subject of this video report:

The fine animal-focused journalist Brandon Keim, also a Maine resident, wrote a fantastic feature for The New York Times in the early days of the pandemic about the annual spring amphibian rescue effort centered on helping these creatures avoid a roadkill fate when they emerge after the first warm rains of spring.

Parting shots

Here's the most surreal amphibian encounter I've had - when I happened to spot newts wriggling beneath the ice on Catfish Pond back in the Hudson Valley in January 2012.

And here's video of my release of the spotted salamander on the gravel lane leading to our home in Maine.

Postscript commentary

The ecology-focused journalist Brandon Keim, mentioned above, posted a compelling comment that is worth adding to the post:

Brandon Keim: The discourse reminds me of the conversation around swine flu and factory pig farming: the threat of swine flu strains evolving to become highly human-contagious — and potentially setting off a pandemic that would make covid’s early days look like a holiday — is widely recognized. But people love their cheap pork, and so even the infectious disease and biosecurity experts offer little else than suggestions for making ever-larger pig factories more airtight and monitoring workers for illness.

That people stop eating pigs, or at least give them decent lives in environments that don’t promote disease, is not on the table. The only people asking for that are the animal advocates — and their perspective is mostly excluded from high-level conversations.

The analogy here is all too clear: the best way to avoid a salamander apocalypse is to stop importing amphibians. But as a ban is likely to be ineffective, the pragmatic recommendation is intensified disease surveillance. Which is much better than nothing, but so very far from ideal.I’m also curious whether a certification program would be narrowly about Bsal and other pathogens of concern, or extend to health in general and even to the origin of animals and whether they were wild-caught or captive-bred. Mostly absent from high-level conversations about the wildlife trade is recognition of the vast suffering involved.

These animals are being torn from their homes — from their social relationships, from the life they know — and transported in conditions of extreme privation, all to be kept in captive settings that are woefully species-inadequate.To get a sense of just how horrible that journey is, see "Morbidity and mortality of invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals at a major exotic companion animal wholesaler," a study published a few years back of 26,400 animals recovered from a major international wildlife wholesaler in Texas. (The company, U. S. Global Exotics, was a supplier for Petco, Petsmart, and the Dallas Zoo, among others.) Some 80% of the animals were “grossly sick, injured, or dead, with the remaining in suspected subotimal condition.”

Prior to the seizure, USGE was “discarding” 3,500 animals per week; over a six-week period, nearly three-quarters of their animals were lost to “stock turnover.” In the 10 days following the seizure, more than 40% of amphibians and reptiles died or were euthanized for humane reasons.“Causes of morbidity and mortality included cannibalism, crushing, dehydration, emaciation, hypothermic stress, infection, parasite infestation, starvation, overcrowding, stress/injuries, euthanasia on compassionate grounds, and undetermined causes,” wrote the researchers. “Contributing factors for disease and injury included poor hygiene; inadequate, unreliable, or inappropriate provision of food, water, heat, and humidity; presumed high levels of stress due to inappropriate housing leading to intraspecific aggression; absent or minimal environmental enrichment; and crowding.”

And these were the *survivors* of the long passage from their homes to the wildlife seller. Who knows how many died on the way.Needless to say, the researchers also identified “risks for introduction of invasive species through escapes and/or spread of pathogens to naive populations.” The conditions of capture and captivity could not have been more conducive to spreading disease.

Not every trafficker is going to be so bad, of course, and It’s true that many keepers of amphibians care deeply for their animals. I know a few myself (and bravo to Josh’s Frogs for dealing only in captive-bred individuals). But the unavoidable fact is that for every animal who survives the wildlife trade, many more die — and this misery is inextricable from the spread of disease.Once again, however, it’s the animal advocates who seem to be making this case most forcefully. The IUCN and CITES have basically settled for making the capture of wild animals “sustainable,” with any ethical consideration of individual animal well-being elided by a population-level focus. Ditto, from what I’ve seen, the big international conservation organizations. Even when it became clear that covid likely originated in the wildlife trade, few were willing to take a stand against it. The Center for Biological Diversity and Natural Resources Defense Council, who broke ranks to issue their own action plan to end the wildlife trade, are notable exceptions.I have no idea whether a ban is preferable stricter regulations — but I do think the animal advocates’ voices are worth including in this donversation. They seem to be the only ones willing to openly confront the demand for animals that is driving the wildlife trade and think seriously about how to reduce it. And in the long run, I suspect that, so long as this demand remains intact, neither bans nor stricter regulations are going to work.

~ ~ ~

Send feedback (including concerns or corrections!), tips, ideas here.

Find my social media accounts, books and music in a single click here.

*- Correction: I originally wrote that Senator Rob Portman of Ohio was shepherding the bill. He supports it but did not introduce it.